Genocide is defined as acts committed with the intent to destroy, in whole or in part, a national, ethnic, racial, or religious group. To date, only three genocides have been officially recognised under this definition, including the 1994 Genocide against the Tutsi in Rwanda. This explainer outlines the ten general stages of genocide, using Rwanda’s experience in 1994 as a reference point. These stages show that genocide is never spontaneous—it follows a predictable pattern, shaped by historical, political, and social dynamics. ALSO READ: April 9, 1994: As Tutsi killings rage, France evacuates citizens, Akazu members 1. Classification This stage sets the foundation for division—establishing an us versus them mentality. Differences between groups are emphasised, often through harmful stereotypes. In Rwanda, this began during Belgian colonial rule. In 1932, the Belgians introduced ethnic identity cards that divided Rwandans into three categories: Tutsi, Hutu, and Twa. This laid the groundwork for institutionalised discrimination. ALSO READ: Speech by the Minister of National Unity and Civic Engagement at the 31st commemoration of the Genocide against the Tutsi 2. Symbolisation Here, symbols or physical traits are used to identify and stigmatise groups. In Nazi Germany, for example, Jews were forced to wear yellow stars. In Rwanda, colonial and post-colonial authorities used physical attributes like height and nose shape to distinguish between Tutsi and Hutu. Stereotypes linked Tutsi with aristocracy and cattle herding, while Hutu were described as farmers, and Twa as hunter-gatherers—further entrenching ethnic hierarchies. ALSO READ: Rwanda urges global action against Genocide denial and ideology 3. Discrimination The dominant group uses laws, policies, or customs to deny rights to the targeted group. Following the death of King Mutara III Rudahigwa—poisoned on July 25, 1959—the Belgian colonial authorities supported the rise of the PARMEHUTU party, which was grounded in anti-Tutsi ideology. Between 1959 and 1969, the party released manifestos calling for a Hutu-only Rwanda. On November 3, 1959, Belgian forces led by Colonel Logiest began forcibly deporting Tutsi to remote areas like Bugesera. By 1961, nearly 14,000 had been displaced. In 1960, Colonel Vanderstraeten bluntly stated: “We do not wish to mix goats with sheep,” when justifying the exclusion of Tutsi from the army. ALSO READ: No Genocide happens without a plan, preparation, state involvement – Rwandan envoy 4. Dehumanisation The targeted group is denied humanity and portrayed as subhuman—likened to animals, pests, or diseases. In Rwanda, Tutsi were commonly referred to as cockroaches or snakes, stripping them of dignity and justifying violence against them in the minds of perpetrators. 5. Organisation Genocide is always systematically planned. In Rwanda, this included compiling lists of Tutsi, arming militias like the Interahamwe and Impuzamugambi, and spreading hate propaganda through the media and political speeches. Even after independence in 1962, discriminatory policies persisted. A 1967 circular by Foreign Affairs Minister Lazaro Mpakaniye banned Tutsi from diplomatic posts, entrenching systemic exclusion and laying the groundwork for later violence. 6. Polarisation Extremists exploit media and propaganda to deepen divisions. Moderates are silenced, threatened, or killed. Colonel Théoneste Bagosora famously walked out of peace talks in Arusha in January 1993, vowing to return and prepare the apocalypse. Upon his return, he mobilised radical military groups and helped establish associations like the Rwandan Armed Forces Association, which promoted extremist ideology. Hate media—including the Kangura newspaper, RTLM radio, and Umurwanashyaka magazine—incited the public. On January 27, 1994, RTLM called on Hutu to resist UN peacekeepers, accusing them of plotting to hand Rwanda to the Tutsi. 7. Preparation This stage marks the formal execution of genocidal plans. Despite claims that the genocide was triggered by the downing of President Habyarimana's plane on April 6, 1994, preparations had been underway for years. Weapons were distributed during political meetings. In January 1992, the extremist CDR party was formed, calling for Tutsi extermination. Between 1993 and March 1994, Rwanda imported 581 tons of machetes. Militias received arms and training under the guise of “civil defense.” A 1991 report by Eugene Munyangoga, head of investigations in Ruhengeri, recommended arming civilians—a strategy that was later implemented with deadly consequences. 8. Persecution Victims are identified, segregated, and subjected to violence. Between 1991 and early 1994, several massacres occurred. In March 1991, 277 Tutsi were killed in Ruhengeri and Gisenyi. On March 4–5, 1992, over 500 Tutsi were massacred in Bugesera by Interahamwe and soldiers. Similar attacks occurred in Mbogo (now Rulindo District) in 1992 and 1993. Those who tried to expose the killings were targeted too. Italian nun Antonia Locatelli was murdered on March 10, 1992, shortly after alerting Radio France Internationale about the Bugesera massacre. 9. Extermination This is the stage where mass killing begins. After Habyarimana’s death, roadblocks were erected in Kigali, and Tutsi were hunted and killed. The violence rapidly spread across the country. The interim government, led by Théodore Sindikubwabo and Prime Minister Jean Kambanda, coordinated the genocide. Political moderates—such as Prime Minister Agathe Uwilingiyimana and PSD President Frederic Nzamurambaho—were among the first to be killed on April 7, 1994. In just 100 days, more than one million people were murdered. The killings were organised and executed by soldiers, local officials, and civilians, under government orders. 10. Denial The final stage involves covering up the crimes, blaming victims, and downplaying the genocide’s scale and intent. To this day, genocide against the Tutsi denial persists. Some still refer to it as a “double genocide” or claim it was a response to the death of Former President Juvenal Habyrimana. Genocide fugitives continue to spread hate speech and false narratives, both in traditional media and online. More than three decades later, denial is still a dangerous threat—and a key indicator of potential future genocides.
