At a commercial bank in Remera Sector, Kigali City, Claver Maniriho shifted uncomfortably as he waited for his turn at the counter.

He had been standing in line for nearly an hour when he politely asked a security guard if he could use the toilet. "There was no public toilet," he recalls.

"I bring them my money, but I can’t get a toilet. I had to run outside and look for a bar nearby where it is easier to find a toilet. I had to leave the queue and when I came back more people had joined the queue and I had to wait," he said.

Maniriho's story is more common in some public places such as banks, garages and others.

Lack of public toilets remains a challenge in both urban and rural areas.

The concern is raised again as Rwanda marks World Toilet Day on November 19, which raises awareness of the 3.4 billion people living without access to safe toilets.

"You may move from Chez Lando to the Convention Centre without seeing a public toilet, yet there are bus stops and petrol stations. It requires entering surrounding buildings to look for toilets and they are often not accessible," he said.

In Kigali’s busiest places—Nyabugogo, Remera, city markets—public toilets exist and are often kept clean, although sometimes they lack soap to use after relieving oneself.

Residents appreciate these efforts.

But once outside major hubs, the situation becomes unpredictable.

Odette Mukanoheri describes what many city dwellers face due to the lack of public toilets along the roads.

"There are no public toilets on many roads. Toilets are located inside certain buildings, hidden far away, or in compounds that are really out of reach.

In these situations, you have to ask around, plead with people, and even after they agree, they start looking for the key and can’t find it because it’s with the person in charge of cleaning. Then they go looking for that person, and several minutes pass before you can access the service—it’s really frustrating."

Banks, she adds, are the strictest.

"Even if you’re applying for a loan with an interest rate, they’ll still tell you to go outside and look for a toilet.”

For many people, the only reliable option is to search for a nearby bar—whether they are a customer or not.

As a result, some people, especially men, are spotted urinating in open spaces near the road, around trees and some buildings' walls, as they avoid walking long distances to find a toilet.

Recently, the City of Kigali's spokesperson, Emma-Claudine Ntirenganya, was heard warning the public that drones could capture people urinating in the environment, although the announcement sparked a debate, with many saying public toilets are few.

To close these gaps, the City of Kigali planned to have 80 new public toilets by 2025.

There were 27 public toilets already operational in key corridors, markets, and taxi parks, and 75 petrol stations equipped with public toilets by 2024.

Seven new improved toilets were recently constructed in Kimironko, Gisementi, Karama, and Rebero, while at least five more were under construction.

Authorities are encouraging the private sector to invest in pay-per-use toilets, ensuring maintenance and sustainability.

The Water and Sanitation Corporation (WASAC) has also partnered with different districts to build 27 model public toilets across the country, with plans to expand further into markets, bus stations, and busy public spaces.

Charged fee for public toilet use still a challenge

In Kigali, toilets exist in some places—but access does not.

There is a hidden cost to a basic need, citizens said.

Public toilets in bus parks and markets often charge Rwf100 per use.

Patrick Irakoze, a commuter in Remera, says the amount seems small until you calculate the daily reality.

"If you work at Remera Bus Park, you can even spend Rwf600 per day. If you have a worker with you, it’s the same. The cost is high. There should be another way to fund maintenance of these public toilets—not all people can afford it," he said.

For low-income earners, this cost is a significant barrier.

Some residents in Kabuga, especially low-income earners doing small business in the area, are calling for free public toilets to help those who cannot afford even the minimum charge.

"If I purchase a few avocados and tomatoes, the income is little per day. I have to spend the whole day around the bus park trying to retail a few goods. The little we get is for family needs. The fee charged on public toilets is a burden for some low-income earners striving for children's basic needs. You may need to go to the toilet several times a day, paying for each use," said Diane Akimana, a mother of four retailing fruits.

A tale of two realities

In rural areas, the reality is different. Safe toilets remain scarce, or unusable in some areas.

While Kigali struggles with access, some rural communities still struggle with availability altogether.

In Akubugingo Cell, Muyumbu Sector of Rwamagana District, Ildephonse Munyamagana stands beside what he calls his "toilet"—a pit latrine with no roof, no door, and no protection from rain.

"I use a sack to cover the entrance,” he explains.

"When it rains, I just wait until it stops. It requires financial capacity to have a decent toilet."

National progress but gaps remain behind the numbers

According to findings from the seventh Integrated Household Living Conditions Survey (EICV 7) by the National Institute of Statistics of Rwanda (NISR), Rwanda has made strong progress in sanitation, with the share of households using improved toilets that are not shared rising from 66% in 2016/17 to 72% in 2023/24.

UNICEF defines basic sanitation as when every household has its own toilet and does not share it with another household.

These toilets should also keep human waste out of contact with people.

Nationally, only 1% of households still practise open defecation—about 1% in rural areas and 0.3% in urban areas.

Overall, 94.3% of households use improved sanitation, and 72.4% use an improved type that is not shared with other households.

Most facilities are pit latrines with a solid slab, used by 91% of households, while 3.3% rely on flush toilets. Unimproved sanitation remains low, with 4.7% using pit latrines without a slab and 0.9% having no toilet at all.

A pit latrine with a solid slab—considered improved sanitation under WHO/UNICEF standards—is widely used in rural and peri-urban Rwanda.

It features a pit to collect waste, a shelter for privacy, and a squat plate or seat placed on a durable slab.

The slab provides safety, better hygiene, easier cleaning, and long-lasting use, which helps reduce disease risks.

Across provinces, access varies. Kigali leads with 99.4% using improved sanitation, though only 46.9% use improved non-shared toilets; 13.3% have flush toilets, 86.2% use pit latrines with a solid slab, and 0.2% have no toilet.

Urban density leads to heavy sharing, even in improved facilities.

"We live in a compound with 13 rented households and two toilets. A number of diseases could be transmitted quickly if there is not enough cleanliness," said Susane Mukanyirihira, a resident of Kimironko Sector, Kigali.

The lack of adequate hygienic facilities in urban settings is mainly caused by prioritising profit over people’s health, in such a way that the landlord builds many small houses on a plot of land with fewer or only one sanitation facility, she said.

In Southern Province, 74.6% use improved non-shared toilets, 89.2% have pit latrines with a slab, 7.6% use ones without a slab, and 1.6% have no toilet.

In Western Province, 76.1% use improved non-shared toilets, 5.2% use pit latrines without a slab, and 0.2% have no toilet.

Northern Province reports 83.2% using improved non-shared toilets, 4.0% with unimproved pit latrines, and 0.9% without any toilet.

In Eastern Province, 75.7% use improved non-shared toilets, 4.8% use pit latrines without a slab, and 1.2% have no toilet.

Why better toilets mean better health

Lack of sanitation, hygiene, and clean water could increase Neglected Tropical Diseases (NTDs), according to experts. Soil-transmitted helminthiases refer to the intestinal worms infecting humans that are transmitted through contaminated soil.

The diseases are referred to as "neglected” because they have been largely wiped out in the more developed parts of the world, but persist in the poorest, most marginalised, or isolated communities of the world.

Water, Sanitation, and Hygiene (WASH) are critical in the prevention and management of all Neglected Tropical Diseases (NTDs) scheduled for intensified control, elimination, or eradication by 2030.

Sanitation plays a key role in preventing exposure to diseases such as soil-transmitted helminthiases, schistosomiasis, or trachoma, while safe water and hygienic conditions in health facilities and in homes are essential for the prevention and control of many NTDs, WASH-related diseases including healthcare-acquired infections.

George Bagabo, the Executive Director of WASHNET Rwanda—a coalition of 13 NGOs focused on water, sanitation, and hygiene—stated that WASH services must be both accessible and affordable to the public.

"We are advocating for the increased provision of public toilets in places such as banks, bus stations, and markets because the current facilities are insufficient. These toilets should be inclusive, adequate for all users, hygienic, and compliant with WHO standards,” he said.

He added that public toilets should remain consistently reliable and accessible for everyone.