A theocracy is a government where a deity is recognised as the supreme ruler, with a human representative, such as a king or priest, acting on its behalf. A monarchy, by contrast, is led by a single ruler, typically a king or queen, who serves as head of state for life or until abdication.
The Kingdom of Rwanda, before its abolition in 1961, blended these systems, functioning as a theocratic monarchy. This article explores Rwanda’s governance to clarify why it fits this model. God as Rwanda’s Supreme Ruler Oral history credits Gihanga, the Founding Father, with establishing Rwanda’s governance system, known as Ingoma.
Contrary to some interpretations, Ingoma was not merely a drum but a divine system of rule, symbolized by the drum. Gihanga declared that his legacy consisted of cattle and governance (Inka n’Ingoma), with God, referred to as Imana y’u Rwanda or Rurema (the creator), as the ultimate authority.
This deity, described as living elsewhere but "sleeping in Rwanda,” was worshipped in spirit, without a physical temple.
All major decisions, from the king’s decrees to individual matters, required consultation with Imana through prophets (kuraguza).At the royal palace, Nyarushara, a sacred object, represented Imana.
Gihanga entrusted Nyarushara to his son Gahima, declaring it the true "King of Rwanda.” Subsequent kings were titled Umugabe of Nyarushara, emphasizing their role as God’s representatives. The enthronement ceremony, detailed in Coupez and Kamanzi’s La Royauté Sacrée de l’Ancien Rwanda, underscores this.
Over three days, the Mugesera (a designated official) would ask the people if they wished to see their king. If affirmed, Nyarushara was presented as the king, symbolizing divine rule, before the human king was revealed.
This ritual highlights the theocratic foundation of Rwandan governance, where the king served Nyarushara, and thus God.
Structure of Ancient Rwanda’s Leadership
Gihanga’s governance model evolved over time. Initially, at Nyamirembe, his daughter Nyirarucyaba served as the chief of the palace household (Umuyobozi Mukuru w’Abanyamihango b’I Bwami), alongside Abiru (royal advisors) and prophets.
Under King Ruganzu I Bwimba, an Umwiru named Mpande introduced significant reforms. He established naming conventions for kings—Mutara for economic progress, Kigeri for war, and Yuhi for peace—and for queen mothers, such as Nyiramavugo for mothers of Mutara kings, reflecting their role in fostering a peaceful palace atmosphere.
Mpande also created the role of a special advisor to the king, second only to the queen mother. Gahenda, the first advisor under King Mutara I Semugeshi, facilitated the historic Peace Deal of Nyaruteja between Rwanda and Burundi.
The hierarchy placed God (Imana), represented by Nyarushara, at the top, followed by the king as Umugabe, the queen mother as the primary advisor, the special advisor, and then the Abiru.
Below them were the queen (the designated mother of the next king) and three high chiefs: the army chief (umutware w’ingabo), cattle chief (umutware w’inka), and land chief (umutware w’ubutaka), who managed regional governance with local leaders.
While colonial scholars often emphasized the king’s authority, Rwanda’s political system was fundamentally theocratic.
The king, as Umugabe of Nyarushara, derived his legitimacy from divine will, consulting Imana through prophets for major decisions. The presence of Nyarushara at the palace and its central role in enthronement ceremonies reinforced God’s supremacy.
This blend of divine and monarchical rule distinguishes the Kingdom of Rwanda as a theocratic monarchy, where the king’s temporal power was inseparable from his role as God’s representative.
Visiting Rwanda’s Past
The King’s Palace Museum in Nyanza District offers a glimpse into this system through royal artifacts, though Nyarushara itself is absent, with its image displayed at the Huye Museum.
These sites preserve the legacy of a kingdom where divine authority shaped governance, affirming Rwanda’s identity as a theocratic monarchy.